کاسیان
از ویکیپدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد
قلمرو بابل در زمان حکومت کاسیان
کاسیان یا کاسیها (به اکدی: کاشی) (به انگلیسی: Kassites) مردمانی باستانی بودهاند که منشا آنها در زاگرس بوده و در فاصله سدههای ۱۲ تا ۱۶ پیش از میلاد بر بابل فرمانروایی کردند. محل سکونت دقیق شان مشخص نیست ولی بیشتر پژوهشگران بر این باورند که ریشه و منشاء این مردمان در رشته کوههای زاگرس در شرق بابل بوده است.[۱] بعضی از پژوهشگران چون ارنست هرتسفلد کاسیان و کاسپیها را همریشه قلمداد کردهاند.[۲] بنابر جلد دوم کتاب تاریخ ایران کمبریج کاسیان در سده ۱۸ پیش از میلاد در منطقه لرستان امروزی زیست میکردند و بازماندگانی از این مردم تا دوره اسکندر مقدونی با نام کاسایی (Cossaei) در منطقه حضور داشتند.[۳]
گواه منشأ قومی کاسیان قریب پنجاه کلمه و نام خاص است که با ترجمه اکدی در متون آشوری و بابلی محفوظ است و همچنین مقداری اسامی خاص که در اسناد تجاری و اقتصادی بابلی باقی مانده و کتیبههای شاهان کاسی مانند آگوم دوم مربوط به هزارهٔ دوّم پ.م. است.[۴] اصالت لرها ممکن است به ایلامیان و کاسیها برسد.[۵]محتویات۱ تاریخ۲ زبان و فرهنگ۳ هنر۴ نگارخانه۵ جستارهای وابسته۶ پانویس۷ منابع۸ پیوند به بیرونتاریخ
گمان میرود که کاسیان از دوران دیرین که کس به یاد ندارد، در ناحیهٔ مذکور زندگی میکردند؛ همچنانکه ایلامیان که همسایه و محتملا خویشاوند ایشان بودند در سرزمین خویش میزیستند. به هر تقدیر، کاسیان از آغاز هزارهٔ سوم پ.م. در آن مکان زندگی میکردند و بعدها به دامداری و زندگی نیمه اسکان یافته در کوهها اشتغال داشتند.
معالوصف در قرن دوم هزاره دوم پ.م. بخشی از کاسیان در حرکت و انتقال قبایل شرکت جسته از کوههای درّهٔ رود دیاله نفوذ کردند و از آنجا گاه و بیگاه به بابل دستبرد میزدند. اکثر محققان این فعالیت کاسیان را به ظهور اسب و حمل و نقل مربوط میسازند.
در حدود ۱۸۹۶ پیش از میلاد حملهای نافرجام از جانب کاسیها به بابل رخ داد. در سال ۱۷۵۰ پ.م. گانداش پیشوای کاسی از طریق دشت ذهاب و شمال ایلام به بابل حمله کرد و بابل را فتح نمود و در سال بعد ۱۷۴۹ پیش از میلاد بابل توسط کاسیها کاملاً تسخیر شد و در همان سال جایگزین دولت بابل شد و به سلطنت جانشینان حمورابی خاتمه داد[۶] و تا سال ۱۷۳۴ پیش از میلاد دوره پادشاهی گانداش از نسل کاسی در بابل آغاز گشت.[۶] سیادت نسل کاسی بر بابل ۵۰۰ سال ادامه داشت.[۷]
کاسیان بر ایلام نیز تسلط یافتند و شوش را مدتها اداره نمودند. در شمال میانرودان با دولت تازه تأسیس آشور که در اواسط قرن پانزدهم پیش از میلاد بنیان نهاده شد نیز جنگیدند. طبق آثار بدست آمده کاسیان از هزارهٔیکم پیش از میلاد به نواحی دور دست ماد دست یافتند. آنها در نیمه دوّم هزارهٔیکم پیش از میلاد تا حاشیه کویر مرکزی و نواحی اصفهان و کاشان و حتی نواحی استان تهران و مرکزی نفوذ کردند. پس از فتح پادشاهی ماد آینده آن را کاردونیاش نامیدند و در آن سُکنا گزیدند.زبان و فرهنگ
کاسیان قبایلی بودند کوهستانی و پیشهٔ دامداری داشتند و بهزبانی که با ایلامی قرابت داشت سخن میگفتند.[۸] در کتاب لرستان و تاریخ قوم کاسی به نقل از راولینسون آمده «واژهٔ کاسی به شکل کوسایورلیی بوده و در زمان اسکندر یونانیان آن را به مردم زاگرس و درهٔ سیمره اطلاق میکردهاند».[۹]
زمانی این عقیده رایج بود که کاسیان هندواروپایی بوده، یا لااقل چنان روابط تماس نزدیک با عناصر قومی هندواروپایی داشتند که زبان و فرهنگ و تمدن ایشان به نحوی مشهود از آن متأثر گشتهاست ولی مدارکی که به نفع مناسبات هندواروپایی کاسیان وجود دارد چنان سست است که باالضروه باید کاسیان را یا فاقد رابطه با هندواروپاییان شمرد یا غیر مستقیم و بسیار دورادور با عناصر اخیرالذکر مربوط دانست.هنر
کاسیان در هنر فلزکاری که آهن هم در ردیف آنها بود، مهارت بسیار داشتند و نیز در سوارکاری از اقوام دیگر چالاکتر و ماهرتر بودند و همین قوم «کاسی» بود که نژاد اصیل اسب را به میانرودان آورد و این نژاد اسب از آنچه سومریها داشتند، برتری یافت و نیز نوشتهها و دستورهایی دربارهٔ تعلیم و نگهداری اسب از آنان باقی ماندهاست که نشانهٔ عشق و علاقهٔ آنان به اسب و سوارکاری است.[۱۰]
مفرغ کاری کاسیان به صورت جدید و بدیع نمود یافت. محصولات مفرغی اوائل هزارهٔ دوم بالاخص مربوط به زین افزار سواری، یعنی دهانه و مهار و حلقههایی که تسمهٔ افسار از آنها میگذشت و به بدنهٔ ارابهها وصل میشد بسیار عالی بود. همچنین آلات و ادواتی مانند تبر و گرز که سر آنها نیز به شکل سر اسب ساخته میشد و همه مشخصات اسب مثل چشم و یال و گوش و … بر آنها ترسیم میگردید.[۱۱]نگارخانه
کتیبه آگوم کاکریمه
مفرغهای لرستان موزه لوور
تیغه تبر مفرغی
لگام مفرغی
لگام با نقش بز بالدار
صورتک مفرغی هزار پ.م.
مفرغ لرستان موزه بریتانیا
آدمک مفرغیجستارهای وابستهآگوم دومگاهشمار تاریخ ایران از غارنشینی تا ظهور هخامنشیانکاسپیهاپانویس KASSITES, a people who probably originated in the Zagros and who ruled Babylonia in the 16th-12th centuries BCE.The original abodes of the Kassites are not known. The commonly held opinion that they originated from the Zagros mountains east of Babylonia (see, e.g., Balkan, 1986, p. 8; Heinz, 1995, p. 167), (Ran Zadok), “KASSITES” Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition The Caspians have generally been regarded as a pre-Indo-European, that is, a pre-Iranian, people and have even been identified by some scholars with the Kassites (e.g., Herzfeld, loc. cit.), (Rüdiger Schmitt), “CASPIANS” Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition گرشویچ، ایلیا؛ میخایلوویچ دیاکونوف، ایگور؛ سولیمیرسکی، تادئوش؛ مالوان، مکس؛ هیو بیوار، آدریان دیوید؛ بیلی، هرلد والتر (۱۹۸۵). THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN Volume 2 THE MEDIAN AND ACHAEMENIAN PERIODS. Cambridge University Press. ص. ۳۹. شابک ۰۵۲۱۲۰۰۹۱۱. به اکدی کاشی Kašši و کاسیتها یا کاششوها یا کاشیان یا کاشوها Grugni, V; Battaglia, V; Hooshiar Kashani, B; Parolo, S; Al-Zahery, N et al. (2012). "Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians". PLoS ONE. 7 (7): e41252. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041252. PMC 3399854. PMID 22815981. ص 4 کتاب ایران پیش از آریاییها «نسخه آرشیو شده». بایگانیشده از اصلی در ۲۱ نوامبر ۲۰۰۶. دریافتشده در ۲۹ ژانویه ۲۰۰۸. G. Husing Die sprache Elams, Breslau. 1908 پیرنیا، حسن، تاریخ قدیم ایران باستان، انتشارات دنیای کتاب، تهران ۱۳۶۲ کالیکان (۱۳۸۷). مادیها و پارسی ها. ص. ۱۴. کالیکان (۱۳۸۷). مادیها و پارسی ها. ص. ۱۵.منابعدیاکونوف، ایگور میخائیلوویچ (۱۳۸۶). تاریخ ماد. ترجمهٔ کریم کشاورز. تهران: شرکت انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی. شابک ۹۷۸-۹۶۴-۴۴۵-۱۰۶-۵.گرانتوسگی: تاریخ ایران از زمان باستان تا امروز، ترجمه کریم کشاورز، تهران، ۱۳۴۵.پیگولووسکایا: تاریخ ایران از عهد باستان تا قرن ۱۸، ترجمه کریم کشاورز، تهران، ۱۳۵۳.کاسیها PDFhعلینیا، امیر، (۱۳۹۶)، کاسیان در ایران زمین، تهران: دفتر پژوهشهای فرهنگی.پیوند به بیرون
منبع:https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86Kassitlər
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Kassitlər - Cənubi Azərbaycanda və Luristanda məskunlaşmış qədim maldar tayfaları. Kassitlər özlərini "kaşşu" adlandırırmışlar. Mənbələrdə kassitlərin adı ilk dəfə e.ə. XXIII əsrdə çəkilir. Mənbələrdə kassitlərin məskunlaşdığı ərazi "Kaşşen" adlanır. Bir sıra Azərbaycan tarixçiləri hesab edirlər ki, antik müəlliflərin kaspiləri kassitlərlə qohumdurlar.
Azərbaycan türklərinin etnogenezində mühüm rol oynamış türkmənşəli tayfalardan biri də kassilərdir (kaslar). Lakin Azərbaycanda yaşamış digər prototürk etnoslar kimi kassilər (kaslar) də uzun müddət tarixşünaslıqda elamdilli və ya hürridilli kimi tanınmışlar. Onların e.ə. V əsrdən adı çəkilən kaspilərlə qohumluğu güman edilir və yalnız elam dilində cəm bildirən "-p" şəkilçisinə görə kaspiləri elamdilli hesab edirdilər. Lakin elə ilk baxışdaca bu yanaşma inandırıcı deyil. Əgər kassilərin e.ə. II minillikdə Mərkəzi Asiyadan gəlmə olduqları qəbul edilirsə, onlar e.ə. III minillikdə İranın indiki Xuzistan və Luristan bölgəsində dövlət qurumu olan elamlılarla necə qohum ola bilərdi.
Qeyd edək ki, kas adını daşıyanlar Azərbaycan ərazisində ən qədim türkmənşəli etnosdur. Deməli, şumerlər, kutilər və lulubilər nəzərə alınmazsa, kaslar tarixdə adı çəkilən ən qədim türk etnosudur. Bunu kasların şəxs adları da təsdiqləyir. Qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, kassitlərdə (kaslarda) şəxs adları teofor adlar idi: Şəxs adlarında qəbilə tanrılarının adları iştirak edirdi. Kasların Babilistanda e.ə. 1595-1155-ci illərdə hakimiyyətdə olması ilə əlaqədar olaraq hökmdar adlarında sami mənşəli akkad sözləri və Şumer-Akkad tanrılarının adları öz əksini tapmalı idi. Kas şəxs adlarından bir neçəsinə nəzər salaq:
Ulamburiaş-qədim türkcə ulam "çapar" və "həmişə" və Buriaş tanrısının adındandır.
Kaslarda I Burna –Buriaş və II Burna-Buriaş hökmdar adları da məlumdur. Qədim türklərdə geniş yayılmış, qurd totemi Midiyada Buriaş (e.ə. 843-cü il), Kitabi Dədə Qorqudda Baybura, Orta Asiyada XIII əsrdə Buritay və başqa adlarda öz əksini tapmışdır. Ulam komponenti kas hökmdarı Ulamxala (e.ə. XI əsr) şəxs adında da iştirak edir. Qədim türklərdə Ulam şəxs adı məlumdur.
Kara-Xardaş-türkcə kara-qara və kardaş-qardaş sözlərindəndir. Antik müəllif Kursiy Ruf Orta Asiyada Sırdərya hövzələrində yaşayan skiflərin (saklar nəzərdə tutulur) Kartazis adlı çarınınMakedoniyalı İskəndərə qarşı çıxdığı qeyd edilir (Kursiy Ruf,VII,7,I). Mənbədə yunanca Kartazis kimi verilmiş ad türkcə Kartaş və yunan dilində -is adlıq hal şəkilçisindən ibarətdir (yunan dilində "ş" səsi olmadığına görə onu "s" ilə vermişdir).
Qeyd edilməlidir ki, kasların şəxs adlarında "daş", "taş" –həmrəy sözü geniş yer tutur: Nazimaruttaş (e.ə.XIV əsr), Maruttaş, Karain-taş, Kadin-Hutrutaş, Hambanitaş və s. Həmçinin digər türk etnoslarının da şəxs adlarında bu komponenti görmək mümkündür: Uyğur xaqanlığında Kinq-Daş xaqan, Orta Asiyada XII əsrdə türk qarakitayların xaqanı Yeloy-Daş (1143-cü ildə ölmüşdür), Səlcuq sultanı Məlikşahın (1072-1092) əmiri Arslan-Taş, Xarəzmdə XII əsrdə Altuntaş (1017-1032), Azərbaycanın Beyləqan bölgəsində XII əsrdə Aluntaş, XI əsrdə səlcuqlu nəslindən Ər-Taş yabqu, həmin əsrdə oğuzlarda Su-Taş, XVI əsrdə qazaxlarda Buydaş şəxs adları məlumdur. Burada iki hökmdar adını versək də Q. Qeybullayev "Azərbaycan türklərinin təşəkkülü tarixindən" əsərində kasların məlum əksər hökmdar və şəxs adlarının mənalarını və mənşəyini izah edir.
Kasların bir neçə tanrısının da adı mənbələrdə qorunmuşdur. Şukamuna, Şamaliya, Kaşşu, Harbe, Şixu, Sax (yaxud Şuriaş), Qidar, Dul, Kamulda, İmmiriya, Mirizar və s. Lakin əksər tədqiqatçılar bu adların mənalarını və mənşəyini aydınlaşdıra bilməyiblər.
Maraqlısı odur ki, kas dilində "da-kiki" sözü göy, səma deməkdir. Qiyasəddin Qeybullayev qeyd edir ki, Da-kiki sözü "danq-kiki" kimi bərpa olunmalıdır və türkcə tanq (danq)–dan yeri, sübh, gig-göy sözlərindən ibarət olması ehtimal edilə bilər. Deməli, bu sözlə dan yerinin sökülməsi və havanın işıqlanması nəzərdə tutulur.
İ.M.Dyakonov yazır ki, kassilərdə bir tayfa Karzi-yabku adlanır. Bu etnonimdəki yabku sözü qədim türklərdəki yabqu - hökmdar sözü ilə səsləşir.
Kasların türkmənşəli olmasını sübut edən digər bir fakt isə bəzi qədim türk etnonimlərində kas etnoniminin əks olunmasıdır. Mərkəzi Asiyada yaşayan uyğurların qədimdə 6 tayfasının kas adlanması məlumdur. Xakaslarda Kızıl tayfasının adı əslində Kazal (Kasal) etnonimində a-ı əvəzlənməsi ilə əlaqədar olaraq kas adı öz əksini tapmışdır. Xakasiyada Kaşlıq şəhərinin adı kaş-kas etnonimi ilə bağlıdır. Qədim Çin mənbələrindən Mərkəzi Asiyada qırğızların dövlətinin Xa-Qas adlanması məlumdur. Çin Türküstanındakı Kaşqar şəhərinin qədim türk mənbələrində Kaş adlanması da diqqəti cəlb edir. Erkən orta əsrlərdən məlum olan xəzər, qazax, qazan türk tayfalarının adları əslində kasar, kasak və kasan olmuşdur. E.ə. VI əsrdən məlum olan Qafqaz toponimini də bəzi tədqiqatçılar kas etnonimi ilə bağlayırlar.
Bəzi tədqiqatçılar görə kaslar daha sonra tarix səhnəsinə kaspi adı ilə çıxırlar. Kaspilər Azərbaycanın hər iki hissəsində (Güney və Quzey Azərbaycanda) yaşamışlar. Kaspi etnonimindəki "-pi" şəkilçisinin elammənşəli sayılması fikri real görünmür. Kaspi etnoniminin Gürcüstanda qədimdən bəri Azərbaycan türklərinin yaşadığı Kaspi yaşayış məntəqəsinin adında da əks olunması göstərir ki, kasp özünüadlandırmadır, başqa sözlə, elamlıların –pi şəkilçisi Gürcüstanda yaşayan Azərbaycan türklərinin yaşayış yerində əks oluna bilməzdi. Kasların Azərbaycanda və ümumiyyətlə Ön Asiyada tarixi rolu məsələsində tarixçünaslıqda qaranlıq məsələlər çoxdur.MənbələrQ.Qeybullayev-Azərbaycan türklərinin təşəkkülü tarixindən,Bakı,1994Q.Qeybullayev-Azərbaycanlıların etnogenezindən,Bakı,1991(I cild)İ.M.Dyakonov-Midiya tarixi,Moskva-Leninqrad,1956E.V.Sevortyan-Türk dillərinin etimoloji lüğəti(I.II,III cildlər),Moskva,1974,1978,1982(rusca)Kassites
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Not to be confused with Kaysites or Kushites.
"Kassite" redirects here. For the mineral, see Kassite (mineral).
Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empirec. 1595 BC — c. 1155 BC
The Babylonian Empire under the Kassites, c. 13th century BC.CapitalDur-KurigalzuCommon languagesKassite languageGovernmentMonarchyKing
• c. 1595 BCAgum II (first)
• c. 1157—1155 BCEnlil-nadin-ahi (last)Historical eraBronze Age
• Establishedc. 1595 BC
• Sack of Babylonc. 1595 BC
• Invasions by Assyria and Elamc. 1158 BC
• Disestablishedc. 1155 BCPreceded bySucceeded byFirst Babylonian dynastyMiddle Babylonian periodMiddle Assyrian EmpireElamite EmpireToday part of Iran Iraq Kuwait
Babylon
Isin
Kish
Nippur
Sippar
Ur
Uruk
Dur-Kurigalzu
Girsu
Map of Iraq showing important sites that were occupied by the Kassite dynasty (clickable map)
Kassite Kudurru stele of Kassite king Marduk-apla-iddina I. Louvre Museum.
The Kassites (/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1595 BC and until c. 1155 BC (middle chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu,[1] although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi.
They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu.[2][3] The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and locally popular,[4] and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture.[3] The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time.[4]
The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate, although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro-Urartian languages of Asia Minor.[5] According to some data, the Kassites were a Hurrian tribe.[6] However, the arrival of the Kassites has been connected to the contemporary migrations of Indo-European peoples.[7][8][9][10] Several Kassite leaders and deities bore Indo-European names,[7][8][9][11][12] and it is possible that they were dominated by an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian-speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor.[7][8][9]Contents
1 History1.1 Late Bronze Age1.1.1 Origins1.1.2 Formation of Kassite power1.1.3 Control and prestige1.1.4 Written record1.1.5 Fall of the Kassite kings1.2 Iron Age1.2.1 Ethnic Kassites1.2.2 As soldiers in foreign wars1.2.3 Final records1.3 Kassite dynasty of Babylon
2 Culture2.1 Social life2.2 Language2.3 Kudurru
3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External linksHistoryLate Bronze Age
Origins
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well established, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran. However, the Kassites were—like the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans who preceded them—linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later.[13][14] They first appeared in the annals of history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna (reigned 1749–1712 BC), the son of Hammurabi. Samsu-iluna repelled them, as did Abi-Eshuh, but they subsequently gained control of Babylonia in 1570 BC, some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the Dynasty of the Sealand by 1520 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. The circumstances of their rise to power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-called "Dark Age" period of widespread dislocation. No inscription or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, an absence that cannot be purely accidental, suggesting a severe regression of literacy in official circles. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-Kurigalzu was named in honour of Kurigalzu I (early 14th century BC).
Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history.
Formation of Kassite power
The transformation of southern Mesopotamia into a territorial state, rather than a network of allied or combative city states, made Babylonia an international power, although it was often overshadowed by its northern neighbour, Assyria and by Elam to the east. Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with Assyria. Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria and Burna-Buriash I signed a treaty agreeing the border between the two states in the mid-16th century BC, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house intermarried with their royal families. There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt (a major source of Nubian gold) to Assyria and Anatolia. Kassite weights and seals, the packet-identifying and measuring tools of commerce, have been found in as far afield as Thebes in Greece, in southern Armenia, and even in the Uluburun shipwreck off the southern coast of today's Turkey.
A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid-15th century BC. However, Babylonia found itself under attack and domination from Assyria for much of the next few centuries after the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC who made Assyria (along with the Hittites and Egyptians) the major power in the Near East. Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there. His successor Enlil-nirari (1330–1319 BC) also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 BC) annexed Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) not content with merely dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV and ruling there for eight years in person from 1235 BC to 1227 BC.
Control and prestige
The Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by governors. Almost equal with the royal cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was the most important provincial center. Nippur, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned c. 1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. In fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, who took the Sumerian-derived title of Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of 13th-century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title 'governor of Nippur' for themselves.
Cylinder seal of Kassite king Kurigalzu II (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105
Other important centers during the Kassite period were Larsa, Sippar and Susa. After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.
Written record
Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, kudurrus (land grants and administrative regulations), private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic).
Kassite king Meli-Shipak II on a kudurru-Land presenting his daughter to the goddess Ḫunnubat-Nanaya. The eight-pointed star was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside the solar disk of her brother Shamash (Sumerian Utu) and the crescent moon of her father Sin (Sumerian Nanna) on a boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.[i 1]
"Kassite rulers in Babylon were also scrupulous to follow existing forms of expression, and the public and private patterns of behavior "and even went beyond that—as zealous neophytes do, or outsiders, who take up a superior civilization—by favoring an extremely conservative attitude, at least in palace circles." (Oppenheim 1964, p. 62).
Fall of the Kassite kings
The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there, where he also died.Iron Age
The Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC); however, they were deposed once more, this time by an Aramean dynasty.
Ethnic Kassites
Kassites survived as a distinct ethnic group in the mountains of Lorestan (Luristan) long after the Kassite state collapsed. Babylonian records describe how the Assyrian king Sennacherib on his eastern campaign of 702 BC subdued the Kassites in a battle near Hulwan, Iran.
Kassite cylinder seal, ca. 16th–12th century BC.
Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia", a variant of the Kassite name. However, it is not clear if Kassites were actually living in that region so late.
During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei", lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6).
As soldiers in foreign wars
But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains"). According to Strabo's citation of Nearchus, Alexander later separately attacked the Kassites "in the winter", after which they stopped their tribute-seeking raids.
Strabo also wrote that the "Kossaei" contributed 13,000 archers to the army of Elymais in a war against Susa and Babylon. This statement is hard to understand, as Babylon had lost importance under Seleucid rule by the time Elymais emerged around 160 BC. If "Babylon" is understood to mean the Seleucids, then this battle would have occurred sometime between the emergence of Elymais and Strabo's death around 25 AD. If "Elymais" is understood to mean Elam, then the battle probably occurred in the 6th century BC. Susa was the capital of Elam and later of Elymais, so Strabo's statement implies that the Kassites intervened to support a particular group within Elam or Elymais against their own capital, which at that moment was apparently allied with or subject to Babylon or the Seleucids.
Final records
The latest evidence of Kassite culture is a reference by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy, who described "Kossaei" as living in the Susa region, adjacent to the "Elymeans". This could represent one of many cases where Ptolemy relied on out-of-date sources.
It is believed[by whom?] that the name of the Kassites is preserved in the name of the Kashgan River, in Lorestan.Kassite dynasty of Babylon
See also: Early Kassite rulersRuler Reigned:(short chronology)CommentsAgum-Kakrime Returns Marduk statue to BabylonBurnaburiash I c. 1500 BC (short)Treaty with Puzur-Ashur III of AssyriaKashtiliash III Ulamburiash c. 1480 BC (short)Conquers the first Sealand DynastyAgum III c. 1470 BC (short)Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in Dilmun"Karaindash c. 1410 BC (short)Treaty with Ashur-bel-nisheshu of AssyriaKadashman-harbe I c. 1400 BC (short)Campaign against the SutûKurigalzu Ic. x-1375 BC (short)Founder of Dur-Kurigalzu and contemporary of Thutmose IVKadashman-Enlil Ic. 1374—1360 BC (short)Contemporary of Amenophis III of the Egyptian Amarna lettersBurnaburiash IIc. 1359—1333 BC (short)Contemporary of Akhenaten and Ashur-uballit IKara-hardash c. 1333 BC (short)Grandson of Ashur-uballit I of AssyriaNazi-Bugash or Shuzigash c. 1333 BC (short)Usurper “son of a nobody”Kurigalzu IIc. 1332—1308 BC (short)Son of Burnaburiash II, Lost ? Battle of Sugagi with Enlil-nirari of AssyriaNazi-Maruttashc. 1307—1282 BC (short)Lost territory to Adad-nirari I of AssyriaKadashman-Turgu c. 1281—1264 BC (short)Contemporary of Hattusili III of the HittitesKadashman-Enlil IIc. 1263—1255 BC (short)Contemporary of Hattusili III of the HittitesKudur-Enlil c. 1254—1246 BC (short)Time of Nippur renaissanceShagarakti-Shuriash c. 1245—1233 BC (short)“Non-son of Kudur-Enlil” according to Tukulti-Ninurta I of AssyriaKashtiliashu IVc. 1232—1225 BC (short)Deposed by Tukulti-Ninurta I of AssyriaEnlil-nadin-shumi c. 1224 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingKadashman-Harbe II c. 1223 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingAdad-shuma-iddina c. 1222—1217 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingAdad-shuma-usurc. 1216—1187 BC (short)Sender of rude letter to Aššur-nirari and Ilī-ḫaddâ, the kings of AssyriaMeli-Shipak IIc. 1186—1172 BC (short)Correspondence with Ninurta-apal-Ekur confirming foundation of Near East chronologyMarduk-apla-iddina Ic. 1171—1159 BC (short) Zababa-shuma-iddin c. 1158 BC (short)Defeated by Shutruk-Nahhunte of ElamEnlil-nadin-ahic. 1157—1155 BC (short)Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte II of ElamCultureSocial life
In spite of the fact that some of them took Babylonian names, the Kassites retained their traditional clan and tribal structure, in contrast to the smaller family unit of the Babylonians. They were proud of their affiliation with their tribal houses, rather than their own fathers, preserved their customs of fratriarchal property ownership and inheritance.[15]Language
Main article: Kassite language
Babylonian Kudurru stele of the late Kassite period, in the reign of Kassite king Marduk-nadin-akhi (ca. 1099–1082 BC). Found near Baghdad by the French botanist André Michaux (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris)
The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they might have had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni.[12][10] Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty have Akkadian names, Kudur-Enlil's name is part Elamite and part Sumerian and Kassite princesses married into the royal family of Assyria.
Herodotus was almost certainly referring to Kassites when he described "Ethiopians [from] above Egypt" in the Persian army that invaded Greece in 492 BC.[16] Herodotus was presumably repeating an account that had used the name "Kush" (Cush), or something similar, to describe the Kassites; "Kush" was also, purely by coincidence, a name for Ethiopia. A similar confusion of Kassites with Ethiopians is evident in various ancient Greek accounts of the Trojan war hero Memnon, who was sometimes described as a "Kissian" and founder of Susa, and other times as Ethiopian. According to Herodotus, the "Asiatic Ethiopians" lived not in Kissia, but to the north, bordering on the "Paricanians" who in turn bordered on the Medes. The Kassites were not geographically linked to Kushites and Ethiopians, nor is there any documentation describing them as similar in appearance, and the Kassite language is regarded as a language isolate, utterly unrelated to any language of Ethiopia or Kush/Nubia,[17] although more recently a possible relationship to the Hurro-Urartian family of Asia Minor has been proposed.[18] However, the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts.
According to the Encyclopædia Iranica:
There is not a single connected text in the Kassite language. The number of Kassite appellatives is restricted (slightly more than 60 vocables, mostly referring to colors, parts of the chariot, irrigation terms, plants, and titles). About 200 additional lexical elements can be gained by the analysis of the more numerous anthroponyms, toponyms, theonyms, and horse names used by the Kassites (see Balkan, 1954, passim; Jaritz, 1957 is to be used with caution). As is clear from this material, the Kassites spoke a language without a genetic relationship to any other known tongue.Kudurru
The most notable Kassite artifacts are their Kudurru steles. Used for marking boundaries and making proclamations, they were also carved with a high degree of artistic skill; they took a long time to make.Gallery
Male head from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, Kassite, reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I. Iraq Museum
Door socket from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Kassite period, 14th century BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum
Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum
Statue of a lion, Kassite, Iraq Museum
Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Kassite. Iraq Museum
Terracotta plaque of a seated goddess, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Kassite period. Ancient Orient Museum
Duck-shaped weight mentioning the name of the priest Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Babylon. Ancient Orient Museum
Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum
Kudurru mentioning the name of the Kassite king Kurigalzu II, from Nippur, Iraq, Ancient Orient Museum
Babylonian cuneiform tablet with a map from Nippur, Kassite period, 1550-1450 BCE
Winged centaur hunting animals. Kassite period. Louvre Museum, reference AO 22355See also
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Ancient Mesopotamia Asia portalCities of the ancient Near EastEarly Kassite rulersKassite ArtHittitesHyksosKaskaKassite deitiesMitanniPhilistinesSea PeoplesShort chronology timeline Trevor Bryce, 2009, The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, Abingdon, Routledge, p. 375. "The Old Hittite Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. "The Kassites in Babylonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012. "Kassite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012. Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. Jaimoukha, Amjad (2004-11-10). The Chechens. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-203-35643-2. Myres, Sir John Lynton (1930). Who Were the Greeks?. University of California Press. p. 102. Among the names of Kassite kings are some which appear to contain Indo-European elements, as though they belonged to families which had once used Indo-European speech, but had lost it as their official language, through assimilation to the people of Kassite speech whose movements they were now directing. Some Kassite deities too seem to have Indo-European names. MacHenry, Robert (1992). The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India - Ireland, Volume 21. Encyclopedia Britannica. p. 36. ISBN 0852295537. That there was a migration of Indo-European speakers, possibly in waves, which can be dated to the 2nd millennium bc, is clear from archaeological and epigraphic evidence in western Asia. Mesopotamia witnessed the arrival, in about 1760 bc, of the Kassites, who introduced the horse and the chariot and bore such obviously Indo- European names as Surias, Indas, and Maruttas (Surya, Indra, and Marutah in Sanskrit). Phillips, E. D. (1963). "The Peoples of the Highland: Vanished Cultures of Luristan, Mannai and Urartu". Vanished Civilizations of the Ancient World. McGraw-Hill: 241. Retrieved 25 July 2018. During the 2nd millennium the long process began by which Indo-European peoples from the northern steppes beyond the Caucasus established themselves about Western Asia, Iran and northern India. Their earliest pressure perhaps drove some the native peoples of the mountains to migrate or infiltrate and sometimes come as invaders into Mesopotamia and northern Syria, even in the 3rd millennium. The Indo-Europeans then drove their way through these peoples, drawing many of them in their train as subjects or allies, and appeared themselves early in the 2nd millennium as invaders and conquerors in the Near East. For the first half of the millennium the highlanders under Indo-European leadership dominated the older peoples of the plains, most of whom were Semites. The most powerful of these Indo-Europeans were the Hittites who ruled Anatolia, and later extended their dominion over northern Syria, but their connection with our three cultures is not direct, unles more Hittite influence was felt in Urartu than has so far appeared. Two other peoples are directly relevant, namely the Kassites from the Zagros mountains in the region of Luristan, and the Hurrians, who spread from regions further north, particularly from Armenia. Both were themselves native peoples of the highland, and spoke languages which were not Indo-European, but belonged to a group sometimes loosely called Caucasian, once widespread but later surviving only in the Caucasus. They were led by Indo- European aristocracies small in numbers but great in energy and achievement. They were the first to use the horse in war to draw the light chariot with spoked wheels. Indo-European names of gods at least appear among the Kassites, and of gods and rulers much more obviously among the Hurrians, in whom this element was clearly stronger. In both cases the names reveal the Indic branch of the Indo-European family, of which the main body moved through Iran to conquer northern India. "Iranian art and architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. Piggot, Stuart (1970). Ancient Europe. Transaction Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 0202364186. The Kassite dynasty of Mesopotamia (with Indo-European names) was established early in the second millennium B.C. "India: Early Vedic period". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 July 2015. "Lorestan". Education.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12. "History of Iran". Iranologie.com. 1997-01-01. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12. J. Boardman et al. (eds) Cambridge Ancient History Vol III Pt 1 (2nd Ed) 1982 Herodotus, Book 7, Chapter 70 see Balkan, 1954, Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru, Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22 during the French excavations at Susa.Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, 1964.K. Balkan, Die Sprache der Kassiten, (The Language of the Kassites), American Oriental Series, vol. 37, New Haven, Conn., 1954.D. T. Potts, Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 111–119, (April 2006)Daniel A. Nevez, 'Provincial administration at Kassite Nippur' abstract of a dissertation gives details of Kassite Nippur and Babylonia.Christopher Edens, "Structure, Power and Legitimation in Kassite Babylonia"Richard Hooker, "The Kassites: 1530-1170 The Kassite Interregnum"Kassites in Encyclopaedia BritannicaDavid W. Koeller, "Kassite rule in Mesopotamia"Kassites in Encyclopedia Iranica by Ran ZadokLivius.org: Kassites/Cossaeansvte
از ویکیپدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد
قلمرو بابل در زمان حکومت کاسیان
کاسیان یا کاسیها (به اکدی: کاشی) (به انگلیسی: Kassites) مردمانی باستانی بودهاند که منشا آنها در زاگرس بوده و در فاصله سدههای ۱۲ تا ۱۶ پیش از میلاد بر بابل فرمانروایی کردند. محل سکونت دقیق شان مشخص نیست ولی بیشتر پژوهشگران بر این باورند که ریشه و منشاء این مردمان در رشته کوههای زاگرس در شرق بابل بوده است.[۱] بعضی از پژوهشگران چون ارنست هرتسفلد کاسیان و کاسپیها را همریشه قلمداد کردهاند.[۲] بنابر جلد دوم کتاب تاریخ ایران کمبریج کاسیان در سده ۱۸ پیش از میلاد در منطقه لرستان امروزی زیست میکردند و بازماندگانی از این مردم تا دوره اسکندر مقدونی با نام کاسایی (Cossaei) در منطقه حضور داشتند.[۳]
گواه منشأ قومی کاسیان قریب پنجاه کلمه و نام خاص است که با ترجمه اکدی در متون آشوری و بابلی محفوظ است و همچنین مقداری اسامی خاص که در اسناد تجاری و اقتصادی بابلی باقی مانده و کتیبههای شاهان کاسی مانند آگوم دوم مربوط به هزارهٔ دوّم پ.م. است.[۴] اصالت لرها ممکن است به ایلامیان و کاسیها برسد.[۵]محتویات۱ تاریخ۲ زبان و فرهنگ۳ هنر۴ نگارخانه۵ جستارهای وابسته۶ پانویس۷ منابع۸ پیوند به بیرونتاریخ
گمان میرود که کاسیان از دوران دیرین که کس به یاد ندارد، در ناحیهٔ مذکور زندگی میکردند؛ همچنانکه ایلامیان که همسایه و محتملا خویشاوند ایشان بودند در سرزمین خویش میزیستند. به هر تقدیر، کاسیان از آغاز هزارهٔ سوم پ.م. در آن مکان زندگی میکردند و بعدها به دامداری و زندگی نیمه اسکان یافته در کوهها اشتغال داشتند.
معالوصف در قرن دوم هزاره دوم پ.م. بخشی از کاسیان در حرکت و انتقال قبایل شرکت جسته از کوههای درّهٔ رود دیاله نفوذ کردند و از آنجا گاه و بیگاه به بابل دستبرد میزدند. اکثر محققان این فعالیت کاسیان را به ظهور اسب و حمل و نقل مربوط میسازند.
در حدود ۱۸۹۶ پیش از میلاد حملهای نافرجام از جانب کاسیها به بابل رخ داد. در سال ۱۷۵۰ پ.م. گانداش پیشوای کاسی از طریق دشت ذهاب و شمال ایلام به بابل حمله کرد و بابل را فتح نمود و در سال بعد ۱۷۴۹ پیش از میلاد بابل توسط کاسیها کاملاً تسخیر شد و در همان سال جایگزین دولت بابل شد و به سلطنت جانشینان حمورابی خاتمه داد[۶] و تا سال ۱۷۳۴ پیش از میلاد دوره پادشاهی گانداش از نسل کاسی در بابل آغاز گشت.[۶] سیادت نسل کاسی بر بابل ۵۰۰ سال ادامه داشت.[۷]
کاسیان بر ایلام نیز تسلط یافتند و شوش را مدتها اداره نمودند. در شمال میانرودان با دولت تازه تأسیس آشور که در اواسط قرن پانزدهم پیش از میلاد بنیان نهاده شد نیز جنگیدند. طبق آثار بدست آمده کاسیان از هزارهٔیکم پیش از میلاد به نواحی دور دست ماد دست یافتند. آنها در نیمه دوّم هزارهٔیکم پیش از میلاد تا حاشیه کویر مرکزی و نواحی اصفهان و کاشان و حتی نواحی استان تهران و مرکزی نفوذ کردند. پس از فتح پادشاهی ماد آینده آن را کاردونیاش نامیدند و در آن سُکنا گزیدند.زبان و فرهنگ
کاسیان قبایلی بودند کوهستانی و پیشهٔ دامداری داشتند و بهزبانی که با ایلامی قرابت داشت سخن میگفتند.[۸] در کتاب لرستان و تاریخ قوم کاسی به نقل از راولینسون آمده «واژهٔ کاسی به شکل کوسایورلیی بوده و در زمان اسکندر یونانیان آن را به مردم زاگرس و درهٔ سیمره اطلاق میکردهاند».[۹]
زمانی این عقیده رایج بود که کاسیان هندواروپایی بوده، یا لااقل چنان روابط تماس نزدیک با عناصر قومی هندواروپایی داشتند که زبان و فرهنگ و تمدن ایشان به نحوی مشهود از آن متأثر گشتهاست ولی مدارکی که به نفع مناسبات هندواروپایی کاسیان وجود دارد چنان سست است که باالضروه باید کاسیان را یا فاقد رابطه با هندواروپاییان شمرد یا غیر مستقیم و بسیار دورادور با عناصر اخیرالذکر مربوط دانست.هنر
کاسیان در هنر فلزکاری که آهن هم در ردیف آنها بود، مهارت بسیار داشتند و نیز در سوارکاری از اقوام دیگر چالاکتر و ماهرتر بودند و همین قوم «کاسی» بود که نژاد اصیل اسب را به میانرودان آورد و این نژاد اسب از آنچه سومریها داشتند، برتری یافت و نیز نوشتهها و دستورهایی دربارهٔ تعلیم و نگهداری اسب از آنان باقی ماندهاست که نشانهٔ عشق و علاقهٔ آنان به اسب و سوارکاری است.[۱۰]
مفرغ کاری کاسیان به صورت جدید و بدیع نمود یافت. محصولات مفرغی اوائل هزارهٔ دوم بالاخص مربوط به زین افزار سواری، یعنی دهانه و مهار و حلقههایی که تسمهٔ افسار از آنها میگذشت و به بدنهٔ ارابهها وصل میشد بسیار عالی بود. همچنین آلات و ادواتی مانند تبر و گرز که سر آنها نیز به شکل سر اسب ساخته میشد و همه مشخصات اسب مثل چشم و یال و گوش و … بر آنها ترسیم میگردید.[۱۱]نگارخانه
کتیبه آگوم کاکریمه
مفرغهای لرستان موزه لوور
تیغه تبر مفرغی
لگام مفرغی
لگام با نقش بز بالدار
صورتک مفرغی هزار پ.م.
مفرغ لرستان موزه بریتانیا
آدمک مفرغیجستارهای وابستهآگوم دومگاهشمار تاریخ ایران از غارنشینی تا ظهور هخامنشیانکاسپیهاپانویس KASSITES, a people who probably originated in the Zagros and who ruled Babylonia in the 16th-12th centuries BCE.The original abodes of the Kassites are not known. The commonly held opinion that they originated from the Zagros mountains east of Babylonia (see, e.g., Balkan, 1986, p. 8; Heinz, 1995, p. 167), (Ran Zadok), “KASSITES” Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition The Caspians have generally been regarded as a pre-Indo-European, that is, a pre-Iranian, people and have even been identified by some scholars with the Kassites (e.g., Herzfeld, loc. cit.), (Rüdiger Schmitt), “CASPIANS” Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition گرشویچ، ایلیا؛ میخایلوویچ دیاکونوف، ایگور؛ سولیمیرسکی، تادئوش؛ مالوان، مکس؛ هیو بیوار، آدریان دیوید؛ بیلی، هرلد والتر (۱۹۸۵). THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN Volume 2 THE MEDIAN AND ACHAEMENIAN PERIODS. Cambridge University Press. ص. ۳۹. شابک ۰۵۲۱۲۰۰۹۱۱. به اکدی کاشی Kašši و کاسیتها یا کاششوها یا کاشیان یا کاشوها Grugni, V; Battaglia, V; Hooshiar Kashani, B; Parolo, S; Al-Zahery, N et al. (2012). "Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians". PLoS ONE. 7 (7): e41252. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041252. PMC 3399854. PMID 22815981. ص 4 کتاب ایران پیش از آریاییها «نسخه آرشیو شده». بایگانیشده از اصلی در ۲۱ نوامبر ۲۰۰۶. دریافتشده در ۲۹ ژانویه ۲۰۰۸. G. Husing Die sprache Elams, Breslau. 1908 پیرنیا، حسن، تاریخ قدیم ایران باستان، انتشارات دنیای کتاب، تهران ۱۳۶۲ کالیکان (۱۳۸۷). مادیها و پارسی ها. ص. ۱۴. کالیکان (۱۳۸۷). مادیها و پارسی ها. ص. ۱۵.منابعدیاکونوف، ایگور میخائیلوویچ (۱۳۸۶). تاریخ ماد. ترجمهٔ کریم کشاورز. تهران: شرکت انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی. شابک ۹۷۸-۹۶۴-۴۴۵-۱۰۶-۵.گرانتوسگی: تاریخ ایران از زمان باستان تا امروز، ترجمه کریم کشاورز، تهران، ۱۳۴۵.پیگولووسکایا: تاریخ ایران از عهد باستان تا قرن ۱۸، ترجمه کریم کشاورز، تهران، ۱۳۵۳.کاسیها PDFhعلینیا، امیر، (۱۳۹۶)، کاسیان در ایران زمین، تهران: دفتر پژوهشهای فرهنگی.پیوند به بیرون
منبع:https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86Kassitlər
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Kassitlər - Cənubi Azərbaycanda və Luristanda məskunlaşmış qədim maldar tayfaları. Kassitlər özlərini "kaşşu" adlandırırmışlar. Mənbələrdə kassitlərin adı ilk dəfə e.ə. XXIII əsrdə çəkilir. Mənbələrdə kassitlərin məskunlaşdığı ərazi "Kaşşen" adlanır. Bir sıra Azərbaycan tarixçiləri hesab edirlər ki, antik müəlliflərin kaspiləri kassitlərlə qohumdurlar.
Azərbaycan türklərinin etnogenezində mühüm rol oynamış türkmənşəli tayfalardan biri də kassilərdir (kaslar). Lakin Azərbaycanda yaşamış digər prototürk etnoslar kimi kassilər (kaslar) də uzun müddət tarixşünaslıqda elamdilli və ya hürridilli kimi tanınmışlar. Onların e.ə. V əsrdən adı çəkilən kaspilərlə qohumluğu güman edilir və yalnız elam dilində cəm bildirən "-p" şəkilçisinə görə kaspiləri elamdilli hesab edirdilər. Lakin elə ilk baxışdaca bu yanaşma inandırıcı deyil. Əgər kassilərin e.ə. II minillikdə Mərkəzi Asiyadan gəlmə olduqları qəbul edilirsə, onlar e.ə. III minillikdə İranın indiki Xuzistan və Luristan bölgəsində dövlət qurumu olan elamlılarla necə qohum ola bilərdi.
Qeyd edək ki, kas adını daşıyanlar Azərbaycan ərazisində ən qədim türkmənşəli etnosdur. Deməli, şumerlər, kutilər və lulubilər nəzərə alınmazsa, kaslar tarixdə adı çəkilən ən qədim türk etnosudur. Bunu kasların şəxs adları da təsdiqləyir. Qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, kassitlərdə (kaslarda) şəxs adları teofor adlar idi: Şəxs adlarında qəbilə tanrılarının adları iştirak edirdi. Kasların Babilistanda e.ə. 1595-1155-ci illərdə hakimiyyətdə olması ilə əlaqədar olaraq hökmdar adlarında sami mənşəli akkad sözləri və Şumer-Akkad tanrılarının adları öz əksini tapmalı idi. Kas şəxs adlarından bir neçəsinə nəzər salaq:
Ulamburiaş-qədim türkcə ulam "çapar" və "həmişə" və Buriaş tanrısının adındandır.
Kaslarda I Burna –Buriaş və II Burna-Buriaş hökmdar adları da məlumdur. Qədim türklərdə geniş yayılmış, qurd totemi Midiyada Buriaş (e.ə. 843-cü il), Kitabi Dədə Qorqudda Baybura, Orta Asiyada XIII əsrdə Buritay və başqa adlarda öz əksini tapmışdır. Ulam komponenti kas hökmdarı Ulamxala (e.ə. XI əsr) şəxs adında da iştirak edir. Qədim türklərdə Ulam şəxs adı məlumdur.
Kara-Xardaş-türkcə kara-qara və kardaş-qardaş sözlərindəndir. Antik müəllif Kursiy Ruf Orta Asiyada Sırdərya hövzələrində yaşayan skiflərin (saklar nəzərdə tutulur) Kartazis adlı çarınınMakedoniyalı İskəndərə qarşı çıxdığı qeyd edilir (Kursiy Ruf,VII,7,I). Mənbədə yunanca Kartazis kimi verilmiş ad türkcə Kartaş və yunan dilində -is adlıq hal şəkilçisindən ibarətdir (yunan dilində "ş" səsi olmadığına görə onu "s" ilə vermişdir).
Qeyd edilməlidir ki, kasların şəxs adlarında "daş", "taş" –həmrəy sözü geniş yer tutur: Nazimaruttaş (e.ə.XIV əsr), Maruttaş, Karain-taş, Kadin-Hutrutaş, Hambanitaş və s. Həmçinin digər türk etnoslarının da şəxs adlarında bu komponenti görmək mümkündür: Uyğur xaqanlığında Kinq-Daş xaqan, Orta Asiyada XII əsrdə türk qarakitayların xaqanı Yeloy-Daş (1143-cü ildə ölmüşdür), Səlcuq sultanı Məlikşahın (1072-1092) əmiri Arslan-Taş, Xarəzmdə XII əsrdə Altuntaş (1017-1032), Azərbaycanın Beyləqan bölgəsində XII əsrdə Aluntaş, XI əsrdə səlcuqlu nəslindən Ər-Taş yabqu, həmin əsrdə oğuzlarda Su-Taş, XVI əsrdə qazaxlarda Buydaş şəxs adları məlumdur. Burada iki hökmdar adını versək də Q. Qeybullayev "Azərbaycan türklərinin təşəkkülü tarixindən" əsərində kasların məlum əksər hökmdar və şəxs adlarının mənalarını və mənşəyini izah edir.
Kasların bir neçə tanrısının da adı mənbələrdə qorunmuşdur. Şukamuna, Şamaliya, Kaşşu, Harbe, Şixu, Sax (yaxud Şuriaş), Qidar, Dul, Kamulda, İmmiriya, Mirizar və s. Lakin əksər tədqiqatçılar bu adların mənalarını və mənşəyini aydınlaşdıra bilməyiblər.
Maraqlısı odur ki, kas dilində "da-kiki" sözü göy, səma deməkdir. Qiyasəddin Qeybullayev qeyd edir ki, Da-kiki sözü "danq-kiki" kimi bərpa olunmalıdır və türkcə tanq (danq)–dan yeri, sübh, gig-göy sözlərindən ibarət olması ehtimal edilə bilər. Deməli, bu sözlə dan yerinin sökülməsi və havanın işıqlanması nəzərdə tutulur.
İ.M.Dyakonov yazır ki, kassilərdə bir tayfa Karzi-yabku adlanır. Bu etnonimdəki yabku sözü qədim türklərdəki yabqu - hökmdar sözü ilə səsləşir.
Kasların türkmənşəli olmasını sübut edən digər bir fakt isə bəzi qədim türk etnonimlərində kas etnoniminin əks olunmasıdır. Mərkəzi Asiyada yaşayan uyğurların qədimdə 6 tayfasının kas adlanması məlumdur. Xakaslarda Kızıl tayfasının adı əslində Kazal (Kasal) etnonimində a-ı əvəzlənməsi ilə əlaqədar olaraq kas adı öz əksini tapmışdır. Xakasiyada Kaşlıq şəhərinin adı kaş-kas etnonimi ilə bağlıdır. Qədim Çin mənbələrindən Mərkəzi Asiyada qırğızların dövlətinin Xa-Qas adlanması məlumdur. Çin Türküstanındakı Kaşqar şəhərinin qədim türk mənbələrində Kaş adlanması da diqqəti cəlb edir. Erkən orta əsrlərdən məlum olan xəzər, qazax, qazan türk tayfalarının adları əslində kasar, kasak və kasan olmuşdur. E.ə. VI əsrdən məlum olan Qafqaz toponimini də bəzi tədqiqatçılar kas etnonimi ilə bağlayırlar.
Bəzi tədqiqatçılar görə kaslar daha sonra tarix səhnəsinə kaspi adı ilə çıxırlar. Kaspilər Azərbaycanın hər iki hissəsində (Güney və Quzey Azərbaycanda) yaşamışlar. Kaspi etnonimindəki "-pi" şəkilçisinin elammənşəli sayılması fikri real görünmür. Kaspi etnoniminin Gürcüstanda qədimdən bəri Azərbaycan türklərinin yaşadığı Kaspi yaşayış məntəqəsinin adında da əks olunması göstərir ki, kasp özünüadlandırmadır, başqa sözlə, elamlıların –pi şəkilçisi Gürcüstanda yaşayan Azərbaycan türklərinin yaşayış yerində əks oluna bilməzdi. Kasların Azərbaycanda və ümumiyyətlə Ön Asiyada tarixi rolu məsələsində tarixçünaslıqda qaranlıq məsələlər çoxdur.MənbələrQ.Qeybullayev-Azərbaycan türklərinin təşəkkülü tarixindən,Bakı,1994Q.Qeybullayev-Azərbaycanlıların etnogenezindən,Bakı,1991(I cild)İ.M.Dyakonov-Midiya tarixi,Moskva-Leninqrad,1956E.V.Sevortyan-Türk dillərinin etimoloji lüğəti(I.II,III cildlər),Moskva,1974,1978,1982(rusca)Kassites
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Kaysites or Kushites.
"Kassite" redirects here. For the mineral, see Kassite (mineral).
Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empirec. 1595 BC — c. 1155 BC
The Babylonian Empire under the Kassites, c. 13th century BC.CapitalDur-KurigalzuCommon languagesKassite languageGovernmentMonarchyKing
• c. 1595 BCAgum II (first)
• c. 1157—1155 BCEnlil-nadin-ahi (last)Historical eraBronze Age
• Establishedc. 1595 BC
• Sack of Babylonc. 1595 BC
• Invasions by Assyria and Elamc. 1158 BC
• Disestablishedc. 1155 BCPreceded bySucceeded byFirst Babylonian dynastyMiddle Babylonian periodMiddle Assyrian EmpireElamite EmpireToday part of Iran Iraq Kuwait
Babylon
Isin
Kish
Nippur
Sippar
Ur
Uruk
Dur-Kurigalzu
Girsu
Map of Iraq showing important sites that were occupied by the Kassite dynasty (clickable map)
Kassite Kudurru stele of Kassite king Marduk-apla-iddina I. Louvre Museum.
The Kassites (/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1595 BC and until c. 1155 BC (middle chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu,[1] although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi.
They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu.[2][3] The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and locally popular,[4] and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture.[3] The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time.[4]
The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate, although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro-Urartian languages of Asia Minor.[5] According to some data, the Kassites were a Hurrian tribe.[6] However, the arrival of the Kassites has been connected to the contemporary migrations of Indo-European peoples.[7][8][9][10] Several Kassite leaders and deities bore Indo-European names,[7][8][9][11][12] and it is possible that they were dominated by an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian-speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor.[7][8][9]Contents
1 History1.1 Late Bronze Age1.1.1 Origins1.1.2 Formation of Kassite power1.1.3 Control and prestige1.1.4 Written record1.1.5 Fall of the Kassite kings1.2 Iron Age1.2.1 Ethnic Kassites1.2.2 As soldiers in foreign wars1.2.3 Final records1.3 Kassite dynasty of Babylon
2 Culture2.1 Social life2.2 Language2.3 Kudurru
3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External linksHistoryLate Bronze Age
Origins
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well established, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran. However, the Kassites were—like the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans who preceded them—linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later.[13][14] They first appeared in the annals of history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna (reigned 1749–1712 BC), the son of Hammurabi. Samsu-iluna repelled them, as did Abi-Eshuh, but they subsequently gained control of Babylonia in 1570 BC, some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the Dynasty of the Sealand by 1520 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. The circumstances of their rise to power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-called "Dark Age" period of widespread dislocation. No inscription or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, an absence that cannot be purely accidental, suggesting a severe regression of literacy in official circles. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-Kurigalzu was named in honour of Kurigalzu I (early 14th century BC).
Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history.
Formation of Kassite power
The transformation of southern Mesopotamia into a territorial state, rather than a network of allied or combative city states, made Babylonia an international power, although it was often overshadowed by its northern neighbour, Assyria and by Elam to the east. Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with Assyria. Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria and Burna-Buriash I signed a treaty agreeing the border between the two states in the mid-16th century BC, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house intermarried with their royal families. There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt (a major source of Nubian gold) to Assyria and Anatolia. Kassite weights and seals, the packet-identifying and measuring tools of commerce, have been found in as far afield as Thebes in Greece, in southern Armenia, and even in the Uluburun shipwreck off the southern coast of today's Turkey.
A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid-15th century BC. However, Babylonia found itself under attack and domination from Assyria for much of the next few centuries after the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC who made Assyria (along with the Hittites and Egyptians) the major power in the Near East. Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there. His successor Enlil-nirari (1330–1319 BC) also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 BC) annexed Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) not content with merely dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV and ruling there for eight years in person from 1235 BC to 1227 BC.
Control and prestige
The Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by governors. Almost equal with the royal cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was the most important provincial center. Nippur, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned c. 1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. In fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, who took the Sumerian-derived title of Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of 13th-century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title 'governor of Nippur' for themselves.
Cylinder seal of Kassite king Kurigalzu II (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105
Other important centers during the Kassite period were Larsa, Sippar and Susa. After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.
Written record
Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, kudurrus (land grants and administrative regulations), private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic).
Kassite king Meli-Shipak II on a kudurru-Land presenting his daughter to the goddess Ḫunnubat-Nanaya. The eight-pointed star was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside the solar disk of her brother Shamash (Sumerian Utu) and the crescent moon of her father Sin (Sumerian Nanna) on a boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.[i 1]
"Kassite rulers in Babylon were also scrupulous to follow existing forms of expression, and the public and private patterns of behavior "and even went beyond that—as zealous neophytes do, or outsiders, who take up a superior civilization—by favoring an extremely conservative attitude, at least in palace circles." (Oppenheim 1964, p. 62).
Fall of the Kassite kings
The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there, where he also died.Iron Age
The Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC); however, they were deposed once more, this time by an Aramean dynasty.
Ethnic Kassites
Kassites survived as a distinct ethnic group in the mountains of Lorestan (Luristan) long after the Kassite state collapsed. Babylonian records describe how the Assyrian king Sennacherib on his eastern campaign of 702 BC subdued the Kassites in a battle near Hulwan, Iran.
Kassite cylinder seal, ca. 16th–12th century BC.
Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia", a variant of the Kassite name. However, it is not clear if Kassites were actually living in that region so late.
During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei", lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6).
As soldiers in foreign wars
But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains"). According to Strabo's citation of Nearchus, Alexander later separately attacked the Kassites "in the winter", after which they stopped their tribute-seeking raids.
Strabo also wrote that the "Kossaei" contributed 13,000 archers to the army of Elymais in a war against Susa and Babylon. This statement is hard to understand, as Babylon had lost importance under Seleucid rule by the time Elymais emerged around 160 BC. If "Babylon" is understood to mean the Seleucids, then this battle would have occurred sometime between the emergence of Elymais and Strabo's death around 25 AD. If "Elymais" is understood to mean Elam, then the battle probably occurred in the 6th century BC. Susa was the capital of Elam and later of Elymais, so Strabo's statement implies that the Kassites intervened to support a particular group within Elam or Elymais against their own capital, which at that moment was apparently allied with or subject to Babylon or the Seleucids.
Final records
The latest evidence of Kassite culture is a reference by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy, who described "Kossaei" as living in the Susa region, adjacent to the "Elymeans". This could represent one of many cases where Ptolemy relied on out-of-date sources.
It is believed[by whom?] that the name of the Kassites is preserved in the name of the Kashgan River, in Lorestan.Kassite dynasty of Babylon
See also: Early Kassite rulersRuler Reigned:(short chronology)CommentsAgum-Kakrime Returns Marduk statue to BabylonBurnaburiash I c. 1500 BC (short)Treaty with Puzur-Ashur III of AssyriaKashtiliash III Ulamburiash c. 1480 BC (short)Conquers the first Sealand DynastyAgum III c. 1470 BC (short)Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in Dilmun"Karaindash c. 1410 BC (short)Treaty with Ashur-bel-nisheshu of AssyriaKadashman-harbe I c. 1400 BC (short)Campaign against the SutûKurigalzu Ic. x-1375 BC (short)Founder of Dur-Kurigalzu and contemporary of Thutmose IVKadashman-Enlil Ic. 1374—1360 BC (short)Contemporary of Amenophis III of the Egyptian Amarna lettersBurnaburiash IIc. 1359—1333 BC (short)Contemporary of Akhenaten and Ashur-uballit IKara-hardash c. 1333 BC (short)Grandson of Ashur-uballit I of AssyriaNazi-Bugash or Shuzigash c. 1333 BC (short)Usurper “son of a nobody”Kurigalzu IIc. 1332—1308 BC (short)Son of Burnaburiash II, Lost ? Battle of Sugagi with Enlil-nirari of AssyriaNazi-Maruttashc. 1307—1282 BC (short)Lost territory to Adad-nirari I of AssyriaKadashman-Turgu c. 1281—1264 BC (short)Contemporary of Hattusili III of the HittitesKadashman-Enlil IIc. 1263—1255 BC (short)Contemporary of Hattusili III of the HittitesKudur-Enlil c. 1254—1246 BC (short)Time of Nippur renaissanceShagarakti-Shuriash c. 1245—1233 BC (short)“Non-son of Kudur-Enlil” according to Tukulti-Ninurta I of AssyriaKashtiliashu IVc. 1232—1225 BC (short)Deposed by Tukulti-Ninurta I of AssyriaEnlil-nadin-shumi c. 1224 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingKadashman-Harbe II c. 1223 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingAdad-shuma-iddina c. 1222—1217 BC (short)Assyrian vassal kingAdad-shuma-usurc. 1216—1187 BC (short)Sender of rude letter to Aššur-nirari and Ilī-ḫaddâ, the kings of AssyriaMeli-Shipak IIc. 1186—1172 BC (short)Correspondence with Ninurta-apal-Ekur confirming foundation of Near East chronologyMarduk-apla-iddina Ic. 1171—1159 BC (short) Zababa-shuma-iddin c. 1158 BC (short)Defeated by Shutruk-Nahhunte of ElamEnlil-nadin-ahic. 1157—1155 BC (short)Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte II of ElamCultureSocial life
In spite of the fact that some of them took Babylonian names, the Kassites retained their traditional clan and tribal structure, in contrast to the smaller family unit of the Babylonians. They were proud of their affiliation with their tribal houses, rather than their own fathers, preserved their customs of fratriarchal property ownership and inheritance.[15]Language
Main article: Kassite language
Babylonian Kudurru stele of the late Kassite period, in the reign of Kassite king Marduk-nadin-akhi (ca. 1099–1082 BC). Found near Baghdad by the French botanist André Michaux (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris)
The Kassite language has not been classified.[3] However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they might have had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni.[12][10] Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty have Akkadian names, Kudur-Enlil's name is part Elamite and part Sumerian and Kassite princesses married into the royal family of Assyria.
Herodotus was almost certainly referring to Kassites when he described "Ethiopians [from] above Egypt" in the Persian army that invaded Greece in 492 BC.[16] Herodotus was presumably repeating an account that had used the name "Kush" (Cush), or something similar, to describe the Kassites; "Kush" was also, purely by coincidence, a name for Ethiopia. A similar confusion of Kassites with Ethiopians is evident in various ancient Greek accounts of the Trojan war hero Memnon, who was sometimes described as a "Kissian" and founder of Susa, and other times as Ethiopian. According to Herodotus, the "Asiatic Ethiopians" lived not in Kissia, but to the north, bordering on the "Paricanians" who in turn bordered on the Medes. The Kassites were not geographically linked to Kushites and Ethiopians, nor is there any documentation describing them as similar in appearance, and the Kassite language is regarded as a language isolate, utterly unrelated to any language of Ethiopia or Kush/Nubia,[17] although more recently a possible relationship to the Hurro-Urartian family of Asia Minor has been proposed.[18] However, the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts.
According to the Encyclopædia Iranica:
There is not a single connected text in the Kassite language. The number of Kassite appellatives is restricted (slightly more than 60 vocables, mostly referring to colors, parts of the chariot, irrigation terms, plants, and titles). About 200 additional lexical elements can be gained by the analysis of the more numerous anthroponyms, toponyms, theonyms, and horse names used by the Kassites (see Balkan, 1954, passim; Jaritz, 1957 is to be used with caution). As is clear from this material, the Kassites spoke a language without a genetic relationship to any other known tongue.Kudurru
The most notable Kassite artifacts are their Kudurru steles. Used for marking boundaries and making proclamations, they were also carved with a high degree of artistic skill; they took a long time to make.Gallery
Male head from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, Kassite, reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I. Iraq Museum
Door socket from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Kassite period, 14th century BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum
Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum
Statue of a lion, Kassite, Iraq Museum
Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Kassite. Iraq Museum
Terracotta plaque of a seated goddess, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Kassite period. Ancient Orient Museum
Duck-shaped weight mentioning the name of the priest Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Babylon. Ancient Orient Museum
Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum
Kudurru mentioning the name of the Kassite king Kurigalzu II, from Nippur, Iraq, Ancient Orient Museum
Babylonian cuneiform tablet with a map from Nippur, Kassite period, 1550-1450 BCE
Winged centaur hunting animals. Kassite period. Louvre Museum, reference AO 22355See also
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Ancient Mesopotamia Asia portalCities of the ancient Near EastEarly Kassite rulersKassite ArtHittitesHyksosKaskaKassite deitiesMitanniPhilistinesSea PeoplesShort chronology timeline Trevor Bryce, 2009, The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, Abingdon, Routledge, p. 375. "The Old Hittite Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. "The Kassites in Babylonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012. "Kassite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012. Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. Jaimoukha, Amjad (2004-11-10). The Chechens. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-203-35643-2. Myres, Sir John Lynton (1930). Who Were the Greeks?. University of California Press. p. 102. Among the names of Kassite kings are some which appear to contain Indo-European elements, as though they belonged to families which had once used Indo-European speech, but had lost it as their official language, through assimilation to the people of Kassite speech whose movements they were now directing. Some Kassite deities too seem to have Indo-European names. MacHenry, Robert (1992). The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India - Ireland, Volume 21. Encyclopedia Britannica. p. 36. ISBN 0852295537. That there was a migration of Indo-European speakers, possibly in waves, which can be dated to the 2nd millennium bc, is clear from archaeological and epigraphic evidence in western Asia. Mesopotamia witnessed the arrival, in about 1760 bc, of the Kassites, who introduced the horse and the chariot and bore such obviously Indo- European names as Surias, Indas, and Maruttas (Surya, Indra, and Marutah in Sanskrit). Phillips, E. D. (1963). "The Peoples of the Highland: Vanished Cultures of Luristan, Mannai and Urartu". Vanished Civilizations of the Ancient World. McGraw-Hill: 241. Retrieved 25 July 2018. During the 2nd millennium the long process began by which Indo-European peoples from the northern steppes beyond the Caucasus established themselves about Western Asia, Iran and northern India. Their earliest pressure perhaps drove some the native peoples of the mountains to migrate or infiltrate and sometimes come as invaders into Mesopotamia and northern Syria, even in the 3rd millennium. The Indo-Europeans then drove their way through these peoples, drawing many of them in their train as subjects or allies, and appeared themselves early in the 2nd millennium as invaders and conquerors in the Near East. For the first half of the millennium the highlanders under Indo-European leadership dominated the older peoples of the plains, most of whom were Semites. The most powerful of these Indo-Europeans were the Hittites who ruled Anatolia, and later extended their dominion over northern Syria, but their connection with our three cultures is not direct, unles more Hittite influence was felt in Urartu than has so far appeared. Two other peoples are directly relevant, namely the Kassites from the Zagros mountains in the region of Luristan, and the Hurrians, who spread from regions further north, particularly from Armenia. Both were themselves native peoples of the highland, and spoke languages which were not Indo-European, but belonged to a group sometimes loosely called Caucasian, once widespread but later surviving only in the Caucasus. They were led by Indo- European aristocracies small in numbers but great in energy and achievement. They were the first to use the horse in war to draw the light chariot with spoked wheels. Indo-European names of gods at least appear among the Kassites, and of gods and rulers much more obviously among the Hurrians, in whom this element was clearly stronger. In both cases the names reveal the Indic branch of the Indo-European family, of which the main body moved through Iran to conquer northern India. "Iranian art and architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. Piggot, Stuart (1970). Ancient Europe. Transaction Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 0202364186. The Kassite dynasty of Mesopotamia (with Indo-European names) was established early in the second millennium B.C. "India: Early Vedic period". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 July 2015. "Lorestan". Education.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12. "History of Iran". Iranologie.com. 1997-01-01. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-02-12. J. Boardman et al. (eds) Cambridge Ancient History Vol III Pt 1 (2nd Ed) 1982 Herodotus, Book 7, Chapter 70 see Balkan, 1954, Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru, Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22 during the French excavations at Susa.Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, 1964.K. Balkan, Die Sprache der Kassiten, (The Language of the Kassites), American Oriental Series, vol. 37, New Haven, Conn., 1954.D. T. Potts, Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 111–119, (April 2006)Daniel A. Nevez, 'Provincial administration at Kassite Nippur' abstract of a dissertation gives details of Kassite Nippur and Babylonia.Christopher Edens, "Structure, Power and Legitimation in Kassite Babylonia"Richard Hooker, "The Kassites: 1530-1170 The Kassite Interregnum"Kassites in Encyclopaedia BritannicaDavid W. Koeller, "Kassite rule in Mesopotamia"Kassites in Encyclopedia Iranica by Ran ZadokLivius.org: Kassites/Cossaeansvte
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